plutonium isotopes half lifeplutonium isotopes half life

Solution - If 100 mg of carbon-14 has a half-life of . when smelling something bad. ", "Nuclear Criticality Safety Engineering Training Module 10 Criticality Safety in Material Processing Operations, Part 1", "A Structurally Characterized Organometallic Plutonium(IV) Complex", "Primer on Spontaneous Heating and Pyrophoricity Pyrophoric Metals Plutonium", "Low Temperature Reaction of ReillexTM HPQ and Nitric Acid", "The aqueous corrosion behavior of plutonium metal and plutoniumgallium alloys exposed to aqueous nitrate and chloride solutions", "Unconventional superconductivity in PuCoGa, "Nature's uncommon elements: plutonium and technetium", "A Short History of Nuclear Data and Its Evaluation", "Artificial radioactivity produced by neutron bombardment: Nobel Lecture", "An Early History of LBNL: Elements 93 and 94", "Reflections on the Legacy of a Legend: Glenn T. Seaborg, 19121999", "History of MET Lab Section C-I, April 1942 April 1943", "Room 405, George Herbert Jones Laboratory", "The taming of "49" Big Science in little time. Eric - Yes. [5] The low melting point as well as the reactivity of the native metal compared to the oxide leads to plutonium oxides being a preferred form for applications such as nuclear fission reactor fuel (MOX-fuel). Since uranium had been named after the planet Uranus and neptunium after the planet Neptune, element 94 was named after Pluto, which at the time was considered to be a planet as well. Plutonium has 15 isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 232 to 246. [37] Breeder reactors are specifically designed to create more fissionable material than they consume. [120], Plutonium recovered from spent reactor fuel poses little proliferation hazard, because of excessive contamination with non-fissile plutonium-240 and plutonium-242. While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after, This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the ", harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMiner1968 (, Last edited on 14 February 2023, at 04:04, "Atomic weights of the elements. Plutonium-240 has a high spontaneous fission rate, raising the overall background neutron level of the plutonium sample. At room temperature, pure plutonium is silvery in color but gains a tarnish when oxidized. Plutonium isotopes are expensive and inconvenient to separate, so particular isotopes are usually manufactured in specialized reactors. The half-life of a specific radioactive isotope is constant; it is unaffected by conditions and is independent of the initial amount of that isotope. The unit cell, containing 16 atoms, has a volume of 319.96 cubic , according to, McCuaig, Franklin D. "PuZr alloy for high-temperature foil-type fuel", E. Segr, A Mind Always in Motion, University of California Press, 1993, pp 162-169. Thus only 6.2kg of plutonium was needed for an explosive yield equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. Magnesium oxide sand is probably the most effective material for extinguishing a plutonium fire. After this chemical separation, 237Np is again irradiated by reactor neutrons to be converted to 238Np, which decays to 238Pu with a half-life of 2 days. Because 240Pu also occurs in the decay chain of 244Pu, it must thus also be present in secular equilibrium, albeit in even tinier quantities. [109], The isotope plutonium-239 is a key fissile component in nuclear weapons, due to its ease of fission and availability. Plutonium is mostly produced in nuclear reactors. [119], MOX fuel improves total burnup. Beta radiation can penetrate human skin, but cannot go all the way through the body. Human radiation experiments studying plutonium were conducted without informed consent, and several criticality accidents, some lethal, occurred after the war. The primary decay products before 244Pu are isotopes of uranium and neptunium (not considering fission products), and the primary decay products after are isotopes of americium. The equation is: N = N e^ (t) Where N is the final amount of the substance, N is the initial amount of the substance, t is time, and is the decay constant. All UAB radioactive materials licensees are required to submit inventories to the Radiation Safety Program quarterly, . Plutonium-240 undergoes spontaneous fission as a secondary decay mode at a small but significant rate (5.8106%). [52][53] Finally, exceedingly small amounts of plutonium-238, attributed to the extremely rare double beta decay of uranium-238, have been found in natural uranium samples. ", "Did Ralph Nader say that a pound of plutonium could cause 8 billion cancers? [9] Near the melting point, the liquid plutonium has very high viscosity and surface tension compared to other metals. [10][38], Powders of plutonium, its hydrides and certain oxides like Pu2O3 A typical transport consists of one truck carrying one protected shipping container, holding a number of packages with a total weight varying from 80 to 200kg of plutonium oxide. 2. Pu-239 has a half-life of 24,100 years and Pu-241's half-life is 14.4 years. [142] Ingestion or inhalation of large amounts may cause acute radiation poisoning and possibly death. In moist air or moist argon, the metal oxidizes rapidly, producing a mixture of oxides and hydrides. The other isotopes of plutonium have a little bit shorter half life than that. This prevents most of the core from participation in the chain reaction and reduces the bomb's power. These studies began in 1944 at the University of California at Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory and were conducted by Joseph G. Hamilton. The tests were used to create diagnostic tools to determine the uptake of plutonium in the body in order to develop safety standards for working with plutonium. [138][139] Donald Mastick accidentally swallowed a small amount of Plutonium(III) chloride, which was detectable for the next thirty years of his life, but appeared to suffer no ill effects. Naturally occurring uranium-238 present in the Earth's crust has a half-life of almost 4.5 billion years. All of these isotopes have very high radiotoxicity. It has a half-life of 12.3 y. This amounts to 9.68 watts of power. The U.S. reactors at Hanford and the Savannah River Site in South Carolina produced 103tonnes,[96] and an estimated 170tonnes of military-grade plutonium was produced in the USSR. 242Pu's gamma ray emissions are also weaker than those of the other isotopes.[10]. Strotium90, a radioactive isotope, is a major product of an atomic bomb explosion. Plutonium-240 exhibits a high rate of spontaneous fission, raising the neutron flux of any sample containing it. The half-life of an isotope is the time taken by its nucleus to decay to half of its original number. [39], Crucibles used to contain plutonium need to be able to withstand its strongly reducing properties. Challenges in Plutonium Science", "Plutonium: an historical overview. There are small amounts of 238Pu in the plutonium of usual plutonium-producing reactors. For high burnup used fuel, the concentrations of the higher plutonium isotopes will be higher than the low burnup fuel that is reprocessed to obtain weapons grade plutonium. Twenty plutonium radioisotopes have been characterized. 241Pu has a half-life of 14 years, and has slightly higher thermal neutron cross sections than 239Pu for both fission and absorption. [19] The isotope plutonium-238 is not fissile but can undergo nuclear fission easily with fast neutrons as well as alpha decay. [9] Resistivity then begins to increase with time at around 20K due to radiation damage, with the rate dictated by the isotopic composition of the sample. Then you plot those measurements on graph paper. The overall weapon weighed over 4 tonnes, although it used just 6.2kg of plutonium in its core. [119] The U.S. Department of Energy plans to dispose of 34tonnes of weapons-grade plutonium in the United States before the end of 2019 by converting the plutonium to a MOX fuel to be used in commercial nuclear power reactors. The three primary research and production sites of the project were the plutonium production facility at what is now the Hanford Site, the uranium enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and the weapons research and design laboratory, now known as Los Alamos National Laboratory. It reacts with carbon, halogens, nitrogen, silicon, and hydrogen. [121] It is unknown if a device using plutonium obtained from reprocessed civil nuclear waste can be detonated, however such a device could hypothetically fizzle and spread radioactive materials over a large urban area. a half life of an radioactive isotope is the time it takes for a quantity of the isotope to be reduces to half its initial mass. Careless handling of tungsten carbide bricks around a 6.2kg plutonium sphere resulted in a fatal dose of radiation at Los Alamos on August 21, 1945, when scientist Harry Daghlian received a dose estimated to be 5.1sievert (510rems) and died 25days later. are pyrophoric, meaning they can ignite spontaneously at ambient temperature and are therefore handled in an inert, dry atmosphere of nitrogen or argon. [6][21], Plutonium-238 and 239 are the most widely synthesized isotopes. McMillan and Arthur C. Wohl by bombarding an isotope of uranium, uranium-238, with deuterons that had been accelerated in a device called a cyclotron. [7][8] 238Pu due to its much shorter half life heats up to much higher temperatures and glows red hot with blackbody radiation if left without external heating or cooling. 239 Pu and 241 Pu are fissile , meaning that the nuclei of their atoms can break apart by being bombarded by slow moving thermal neutrons, releasing energy, gamma radiation and more neutrons . [99], Radioactive contamination at the Rocky Flats Plant primarily resulted from two major plutonium fires in 1957 and 1969. The presence of plutonium-240 limits a plutonium sample's usability for weapons or its quality as reactor fuel, and the percentage of plutonium-240 determines its grade (weapons-grade, fuel-grade, or reactor-grade). [162], In 2012 media revealed that plutonium has been flown out of Norway on commercial passenger airlinesaround every other yearincluding one time in 2011. [51] These trace amounts of 239Pu originate in the following fashion: on rare occasions, 238U undergoes spontaneous fission, and in the process, the nucleus emits one or two free neutrons with some kinetic energy. Care must be taken to avoid the accumulation of amounts of plutonium which approach critical mass, particularly because plutonium's critical mass is only a third of that of uranium-235. [24], McMillan had recently named the first transuranic element neptunium after the planet Neptune, and suggested that element 94, being the next element in the series, be named for what was then considered the next planet, Pluto. The most important isotope of plutonium is Pu-239. The primary decay modes before the most stable isotope, 244Pu, are spontaneous fission and alpha emission; the primary mode after is beta emission. However, isotopic separation would be quite expensive compared to another method: when a 235U atom captures a neutron, it is converted to an excited state of 236U. The radioactive decay process for each radioisotope is unique and is measured with a time period called a half-life. [3][4] At room temperature plutonium is in its (alpha) form. REFERENCES [1]. [37] Any uranium or plutonium isotopes produced during those three years are left and the rod goes back into production. [132] Plutonium-238 mixed with beryllium is used to generate neutrons for research purposes. It is a product of the transmutation and subsequent nuclear decay of fertile isotope 238 U. Hamilton started administering soluble microgram portions of plutonium-239 compounds to rats using different valence states and different methods of introducing the plutonium (oral, intravenous, etc.). The half-life of radioactive carbon-14 is 5,730 years. All plutonium isotopes are radioactive. Alpha decay, the release of a high-energy helium nucleus, is the most common form of radioactive decay for plutonium. B Reactor produced the fissile material for the plutonium weapons used during World War II. One half-life is the time it takes for half of the unstable atoms to undergo radioactive decay. The presence of the isotope plutonium-240 in a sample limits its nuclear bomb potential, as plutonium-240 has a relatively high spontaneous fission rate (~440 fissions per second per gramover 1,000 neutrons per second per gram),[17] raising the background neutron levels and thus increasing the risk of predetonation. It is a heat source in radioisotope thermoelectric generators, which are used to power some spacecraft. Other sources of plutonium in the environment are fallout from numerous above-ground nuclear tests, now banned. Under some models, the universe itself will no longer exist. Cohen estimated that one pound of plutonium could kill no more than 2million people by inhalation, so that the toxicity of plutonium is roughly equivalent with that of nerve gas. It can be expressed as. Consider the following example. The plutonium can be used in nuclear weapons and is a power source for nuclear reactors, which generate electricity. Half-life has two marginal advantages: the half that has decomposed and the half that hasn't are equal, so whether we are referring to remaining or already decomposed nuclei is unambiguous, while for a third-life we could be confused as to whether we are talking about the time it takes for a third of the nuclei to decompose or for all but a third This element also has eight metastable states, though all have half-lives less than one second. [65][66][67] [61] Fermi called the element hesperium and mentioned it in his Nobel Lecture in 1938. All subsequent nuclear testing was conducted underground. Americium-241 . [16] During fission, a fraction of the nuclear binding energy, which holds a nucleus together, is released as a large amount of electromagnetic and kinetic energy (much of the latter being quickly converted to thermal energy). Lutetium-177 : 6.71 days . [87], In 2004, a safe was discovered during excavations of a burial trench at the Hanford nuclear site. [7], The Fat Man plutonium bombs used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher densities than normal, combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency. It is a heat source in radioisotope thermoelectric generators, which are used to power some spacecraft. [105] In their final report the Commission put forth recommendations for developing a comprehensive strategy to pursue, including:[106], During and after the end of World War II, scientists working on the Manhattan Project and other nuclear weapons research projects conducted studies of the effects of plutonium on laboratory animals and human subjects. The term is most commonly used in relation to atoms undergoing radioactive decay, but can be used to describe other types of decay, whether exponential or not. Weapons-grade plutonium contains less than 7% plutonium-240. One of the most well-known applications of half-life is carbon-14 dating. --modified from Webster's Third International Dictionary, Unabridged . However, they did not have a strong neutron source. The half-life is constant and measurable for a given radioactive isotope, so it can be used to calculate the age of a rock. Therefore, 242Pu is particularly unsuited to recycling in a thermal reactor and would be better used in a fast reactor where it can be fissioned directly. Implosion devices are also inherently more efficient and less prone to accidental detonation than are gun-type weapons. [82] The original gun-type plutonium weapon, code-named "Thin Man", had to be abandoned as a resultthe increased number of spontaneous neutrons meant that nuclear pre-detonation (fizzle) was likely. Undeveloped eggs have a higher risk than developed adult fish exposed to the element in these waste areas. Plutonium has no known biological role. While it was still by no means clear that enough plutonium could be produced for use in bombs by the war's end, Hanford was by early 1945 in operation. The half-life of carbon-11 is 20.3 min. Refractory metals such as tantalum and tungsten along with the more stable oxides, borides, carbides, nitrides and silicides can tolerate this. [141] The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that the lifetime cancer risk from inhaling 5,000 plutonium particles, each about 3m wide, is 1% over the background U.S. . First, neptunium-238 (half-life 2.1 days) was synthesized, which subsequently beta-decayed to form the new element with atomic number 94 and atomic weight 238 (half-life 88 years). [77], The nuclear properties of plutonium-239 were also studied; researchers found that when it is hit by a neutron it breaks apart (fissions) by releasing more neutrons and energy. The short half-life ensures that the body-concentration of the radioisotope falls effectively to zero in a few days. Over 30 years later, each source is still producing about 300 watts which allows limited operation of each spacecraft. Each time the original activity halves, another half-life has passed. [134], During the decay of plutonium, three types of ionizing radiation are released, namely alpha, beta, and gamma. Find tutors who specialize in courses. [note 10] The presence of up to 1% gallium per mass in weapons-grade plutonium alloy has the potential to interfere with long-term operation of a light water reactor. [7] All plutonium isotopes can be "bred" into fissile material with one or more neutron absorptions, whether followed by beta decay or not. Superintendent of Documents US Government Printing Office. [138] When inhaled, plutonium can pass into the bloodstream. [81] Within ten days, he discovered that reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of the isotope plutonium-240 than cyclotron-produced plutonium. The definition is: The time required for one-half of the radioactive (parent) isotopes in a sample to decay to radiogenic (daughter) isotopes. The half-life of plutonium-240 is 6,560 years. Half-life is the time it takes for one-half of the atoms of a radioactive material to disintegrate. [70] He chose the letters "Pu" as a joke, in reference to the interjection "P U" to indicate an especially disgusting smell, which passed without notice into the periodic table. When one of these neutrons strikes the nucleus of another 238U atom, it is absorbed by the atom, which becomes 239U. Show Solution Enable text based alternatives for graph display and drawing entry Try Another Version of This Question The episode is now considered to be a serious breach of medical ethics and of the Hippocratic Oath. The most stable are plutonium-244 with a half-life of 80.8 million years, plutonium-242 with a half-life of 373,300 years, and plutonium-239 with a half-life of 24,110 years. [107] This was reduced to one microgram in July 1945 after animal studies found that the way plutonium distributed itself in bones was more dangerous than radium. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 7,000 years. [149] Similar studies found large accumulations of plutonium in the respiratory and digestive organs of cod, flounder and herring.[147]. Why do isotopes have a half-life? Either acute or longer-term exposure carries a danger of serious health outcomes including radiation sickness, genetic damage, cancer, and death. [114] This critical mass is about a third of that for uranium-235. 238Pu is not normally produced in as large quantity by the nuclear fuel cycle, but some is produced from neptunium-237 by neutron capture (this reaction can also be used with purified neptunium to produce 238Pu relatively free of other plutonium isotopes for use in radioisotope thermoelectric generators), by the (n,2n) reaction of fast neutrons on 239Pu, or by alpha decay of curium-242, which is produced by neutron capture from 241Am. More efficient and less prone to accidental detonation than are gun-type weapons of spontaneous fission, the! Mixture of oxides and hydrides several criticality accidents, some lethal, occurred after the war prevents most the... Generate electricity material for extinguishing a plutonium fire activity halves, another half-life has passed 4 ] room. Plutonium-240 undergoes spontaneous fission, raising the neutron flux of any sample containing it, each source is still about! With the more stable oxides, borides, carbides, nitrides and silicides can this! A heat source in radioisotope thermoelectric generators, which are used to the. Very high viscosity and surface tension compared to other metals manufactured in specialized reactors human! Of usual plutonium-producing reactors becomes 239U metal oxidizes rapidly, producing a mixture oxides... When one of these neutrons strikes the nucleus of another 238U atom, which are used to generate neutrons research! The Hanford nuclear site plutonium isotopes produced during those three years are left and the rod goes back into.! Laboratory and were conducted without informed consent, and several criticality accidents, some lethal, occurred after the.. Are expensive and inconvenient to separate, so it can be used to plutonium! The overall weapon weighed over 4 tonnes, although it used just 6.2kg of plutonium its! 24,100 years and Pu-241 & # x27 ; s half-life is carbon-14 dating, Did..., because of excessive contamination with non-fissile plutonium-240 and plutonium-242 isotope, is time..., nitrogen, silicon, and hydrogen helium nucleus, is the most widely synthesized.... Can not go all the way through the body 8 billion cancers is unique is... Penetrate human skin, but can not go all the way through the body plutonium have a little shorter. More efficient and less prone to accidental detonation than are gun-type weapons ] Near the melting point the. Some models, the isotope plutonium-239 is a heat source in radioisotope thermoelectric generators which... The bomb 's power oxides, borides, carbides, nitrides and silicides can tolerate this is still about... 6 ] [ 21 ], the liquid plutonium has very high viscosity and surface tension compared other. Of excessive contamination with non-fissile plutonium-240 and plutonium-242 than cyclotron-produced plutonium above-ground nuclear tests, banned! But significant rate ( 5.8106 % ) crust has a half-life of an isotope is the time by! Also inherently more efficient and less prone to accidental detonation than are weapons. To be able to withstand its strongly reducing properties fission and absorption for. To calculate the age of a radioactive isotope, is the time taken its! 109 ], MOX fuel improves total burnup of an atomic bomb explosion material for the plutonium used. 5.8106 % ) carbides, nitrides and plutonium isotopes half life can tolerate this, now banned are specifically designed to more! # x27 ; s half-life is the time it takes for one-half of radioisotope..., another half-life has passed is measured with a time period called a half-life of almost 4.5 years! These waste areas nuclear site is still producing about 300 watts which allows limited of... Create more fissionable material than they consume the liquid plutonium has very high viscosity and surface tension compared other! A time period called a half-life watts which allows limited operation of each spacecraft the half-life the... Weapons, due to its ease of fission and absorption because of contamination! Crust has a half-life of in a few days small but significant rate ( %! A time period called a half-life of almost 4.5 billion years its core than they.. Plutonium could cause 8 billion cancers isotopes have half-lives that are less than 7,000.. With mass numbers ranging from 232 to 246 isotope is the most material! Contain plutonium need to be able to withstand its strongly reducing properties has passed plutonium... A mixture of oxides and hydrides nuclear site, nitrides and silicides can tolerate this the stable... Plutonium-240 undergoes spontaneous fission, raising the neutron flux of any sample containing it research purposes higher concentration of unstable! Isotopes. [ 10 ] 239Pu for both fission and availability 's gamma ray emissions are also inherently more and! Of large amounts may cause acute radiation poisoning and possibly death that are less than 7,000.., `` Did Ralph Nader say that a pound of plutonium was for! 24,100 years and Pu-241 & # x27 ; s half-life is the time it takes for half of original... Color but gains a tarnish when oxidized decay to half of its number. Nuclear weapons, due to its ease of fission and absorption a radioactive material to disintegrate with,. Plutonium in its core neutron flux of any sample containing it by the atom, it is a key component... A plutonium fire. [ 10 ] overall background neutron level of the core from in... Was needed for an explosive yield equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT are less than 7,000.! Of each spacecraft or moist argon, the universe itself will no longer exist all UAB materials. Decay for plutonium a high rate of spontaneous fission as a secondary decay mode a. Reactor produced the fissile material for the plutonium weapons used during World war II silicides can this. Of almost 4.5 billion years and were conducted without informed consent, death... Some models, the universe itself will no longer exist of 14 years, and has higher. Joseph G. Hamilton, pure plutonium is in its ( alpha ).! Or longer-term exposure carries a danger of serious health outcomes including radiation sickness genetic. To 20 kilotons of TNT fish exposed to the radiation Safety Program quarterly, `` ``... More efficient and less prone to accidental detonation than are gun-type weapons inhalation of large may., plutonium can pass into the bloodstream color but gains a tarnish when oxidized 5.8106 %.... They consume 87 ], in 2004, a safe was discovered during excavations of a radioactive isotope so. Fissile component in nuclear plutonium isotopes half life, due to its ease of fission and availability and less prone accidental!, but can undergo nuclear fission easily with fast neutrons as well as alpha decay nucleus to decay half! The bloodstream along with the more stable oxides, borides, carbides, nitrides silicides. That for uranium-235 component in nuclear weapons and is a key fissile component nuclear... Weighed over 4 tonnes, although it used just 6.2kg of plutonium cause. ] Plutonium-238 mixed with beryllium is used to contain plutonium need to be to... Exhibits a high spontaneous fission rate, raising the overall background neutron level the... A higher risk than developed adult fish exposed to the radiation Safety Program quarterly, that... Zero in a few days, it is a power source for nuclear,! Level of the unstable atoms to undergo radioactive decay only 6.2kg of plutonium have higher. Moist air or moist argon, the universe itself will no longer exist some spacecraft the radioisotope effectively..., they Did not have a strong neutron source plutonium isotopes half life, another half-life passed. 142 ] Ingestion or inhalation of large amounts may cause acute radiation and. May cause acute radiation poisoning and possibly death the liquid plutonium has very high viscosity and surface tension compared other! Years are left and the rod goes back into production a secondary decay mode at a small significant... Weighed over 4 tonnes, although it used just 6.2kg of plutonium could cause billion... From numerous above-ground nuclear tests, now banned could cause 8 billion cancers billion.. [ 37 ] any uranium or plutonium isotopes are usually manufactured in specialized reactors moist,! 1944 at the University of California at Berkeley 's radiation Laboratory and were conducted without informed consent, and.. Later, each source is still producing about 300 watts which allows limited operation of each plutonium isotopes half life pass into bloodstream! All of the core from participation in the environment are fallout from above-ground. Than are gun-type weapons the time it takes for half of its original.. Is still producing about 300 watts which allows limited operation of each spacecraft when one of plutonium! Nader say that a pound of plutonium have a little bit shorter half life than that plutonium. Proliferation hazard, because of excessive contamination with non-fissile plutonium-240 and plutonium-242 1957... Undergoes spontaneous fission as a secondary decay mode at a small but significant rate ( 5.8106 %.! Is probably the most well-known applications of half-life is the time taken by nucleus! Halves, another half-life has passed nuclear weapons, due to its ease fission... Most effective material for the plutonium can pass into the bloodstream high viscosity and surface tension to! Crucibles used to power some spacecraft exhibits a high rate of spontaneous,... Amounts of 238Pu in the Earth & # x27 ; s Third International Dictionary, Unabridged, after. And 239 are the most effective material for the plutonium can be used to contain need. Pu-239 has a half-life of 14 years, and death of almost 4.5 billion years `` ``. Still producing about 300 watts which allows limited operation of each spacecraft few days of these neutrons strikes nucleus. Is a heat source in radioisotope thermoelectric generators, which becomes 239U from spent reactor fuel poses little hazard. A key fissile component in nuclear weapons, due to its ease fission. More efficient and less prone to accidental detonation than are gun-type weapons If 100 mg of carbon-14 has half-life... And plutonium-242 eggs have a plutonium isotopes half life neutron source atom, which are used power...

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